One of the most essential vitamins needed by the human body, Vitamin K is critical to bone health.[1] Additionally, it helps regulate blood clotting and is crucial for coagulation. Deficiency of vitamin K could be life-threatening, given the fact that bleeding will not stop in the case of an injury.[2] The vitamin is found in plants and produced by intestinal bacteria as well.

There are two types of Vitamin K:

• Vitamin K1 (phylloquinone): This type is found in leafy greens, such as kale, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, and spinach, and it is less bioactive than K2.
• Vitamin K2 (menaquinone): This type of vitamin K is produced in the intestinal tract.

Vitamin K deficiency is not too common because it is naturally produced in the body. Besides it is sourced from most of the food we eat. But some drugs and conditions can interfere with the absorption and creation of vitamin K, resulting in its deficiency.

However, if someone is suffering from vitamin K deficiency, they are more likely to bleed excessively. In that case, the bleeding doesn’t seem to stop. Your body needs this essential vitamin to produce proteins that help in the blood clotting process.

“Vitamin K deficiency is not too common because it is naturally produced in the body.”

Vitamin K supplementation is associated with better cardiovascular health and improved bone circumference.[3] It is believed to reduce vascular calcification of arteries that causes stiffening, which reduces the risk of mortality.[4]

Vitamin K Benefits

Neuroprotection

Vitamin K has cytoprotective effect and reduces oxidative cell death. It has the potential to protect neural cells from neurotoxicity.[5] Vitamin K is believed to play a potential role in the protection of neurons from glutamate-induced cell death. It appears to be protective against oxidative stress and glutamate.

Further, research into the role of vitamin K in the nervous system stresses the fact that there are vitamin K-dependent proteins that influence the central and peripheral nervous systems.[6] Protein Gas6 is believed to play a role in the survival of cells, including chemotaxis, mitogenesis.[7] Further, it is also known to stimulate the growth of neurons and glial cells.

Bone health

Vitamin K protects bone health. A study found significant improvement in the bone density, strength, and health of postmenopausal women who were given a daily supplement of vitamin K2 for over 3 years.[8]

Research reveals an inverse relationship between vitamin K status and fracture risk.[9] This confirms that vitamin K deficiency is associated with a high fracture risk, osteoporosis, and low bone mass.

Cardiovascular health

Both types of vitamin K have some antioxidant properties that might slow the progression of atherosclerosis.[10] Additionally, it is believed that a high intake of vitamin K has a synergistic effect on heart health.

A case-control study found a higher risk of coronary artery calcification progression in individuals with lower plasma vitamin K1 concentrations.[11] This means Vitamin K plays a role in slowing down deposition of calcium on artery walls.

Renal health

Vitamin K deficiency is also reported in people suffering from renal problems, especially chronic kidney disease (CKD).[12] The deficiency might result from the exhaustion of the vitamin due to its use by vitamin K-dependent proteins in inhibiting calcification.

Additionally, CKD patients might suffer from chronic deficiency of vitamin K due to their dependence on diets low in potassium and phosphate.[13] That means patients must abstain from eating green leafy vegetables that are rich in potassium and vitamin K1 as well as phosphate-rich dairy products.

Since vitamin K plays a crucial role in the activation of matrix Gla protein, which inhibits calcification, its deficiency may result in high vascular calcification. Haemodialysis patients are likely to be the worst sufferers. As a result, there is pathological accumulation of the mineral in blood vessels and arteries. [14]Vascular calcification further poses a risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in patients on dialysis.

Pre-clinical studies confirm that low vitamin K worsens arterial calcification in rats with CKD.[15] The research further claims that vitamin K1 supplementation can help prevent this condition.

Additionally, another study claims that vitamin K deficiency is a risk factor in kidney-transplant patients, posing a high risk of overall mortality.

Studies indicate vitamin K’s role in cardiovascular health in high-risk CKD populations. Some clinical trials investigate the combined role of vitamin D + K supplementation, suggesting that vitamin D might play a role in preserving proteins dependent on vitamin K. As a result, vascular health might benefit. Both vitamins are believed to have a synergistic effect.[16]

According to one study, vitamin K supplementation helps elevate parathyroid hormone concentrations.

Vitamin K deficiency in pregnant women has been reported to cause hemorrhage and chondrodysplasia punctata in infants. A drop in prothrombin levels affects the rate at which blood clots.[17] Slowed down blood clotting might result in excessive bleeding, which could prove fatal. Additionally, a relative deficiency of vitamin K is a risk factor for breastfeeding women and their children, who are at a risk of vitamin K deficiency bleeding.

Cancer

 Vitamin K administration with other anti-cancer agents could play a tumor-suppressive role and help prevent or treat hepatocellular carcinoma in clinical settings. Research finds that Vitamin K inhibits cancer cell growth.[18] Vitamin K is believed to have an antiproliferative effect on liver tumor, that is, it suppresses the growth of cancer cells.[19]

Skin health

Topical application of vitamin K could have skin-protective effects. Applied topically, it may promote wound healing due to its ability to improve the rate of wound contraction, formation of fibroblasts cells , and boost collagen fibers and blood vessels.[20] Therefore, vitamin K may be used as a supplement together with proven treatments for patients suffering from chronic skin wounds.

Male fertility

Vitamin K2 (Mk 4) might play a role in the production of testosterone.[21] It is believed to improve sperm counts in animal studies on male rats.

 

References

[1] Eden, R.E. and Coviello, J.M. Vitamin K Deficiency. [Updated 2019 Mar 29]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2019 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK536983/

[2] Vermeer, C. (2012). Vitamin K: the effect on health beyond coagulation - an overview. Food & nutrition research, 56, 10.3402/fnr.v56i0.5329. doi:10.3402/fnr.v56i0.5329

[3] Schwalfenberg, G. K. (2017). Vitamins K1 and K2: The Emerging Group of Vitamins Required for Human Health. Journal of nutrition and metabolism, 6254836. doi:10.1155/2017/6254836

[4] Schwalfenberg, G. K. (2017). Vitamins K1 and K2: The Emerging Group of Vitamins Required for Human Health. Journal of nutrition and metabolism, 6254836. doi:10.1155/2017/6254836

[5] Eden, R.E. and Coviello, J.M. Vitamin K Deficiency. [Updated 2019 Mar 29]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2019 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK536983/

[6] Ferland, G.(2012). Vitamin K and the nervous system: an overview of its actions. Advances in Nutrition, 1;3(2):204-12. doi: 10.3945/an.111.001784.

[7] Stenhoff, J.1., Dahlbäck, B. & Hafizi, S.(2004).Vitamin K-dependent Gas6 activates ERK kinase and stimulates growth of cardiac fibroblasts.Biochemical Biophysical Research Communications, 319(3):871-8

[8] Maresz, K. (2015). Proper Calcium Use: Vitamin K2 as a Promoter of Bone and Cardiovascular Health. Integrative medicine (Encinitas, Calif.), 14(1), 34–39

[9] Vermeer, C. (2012). Vitamin K: the effect on health beyond coagulation - an overview. Food & nutrition research, 56, 10.3402/fnr.v56i0.5329. doi:10.3402/fnr.v56i0.5329

[10] Van Ballegooijen, A. J., & Beulens, J. W. (2017). The Role of Vitamin K Status in Cardiovascular Health: Evidence from Observational and Clinical Studies. Current nutrition reports, 6(3), 197–205. doi:10.1007/s13668-017-0208-8

[11] Van Ballegooijen, A. J., & Beulens, J. W. (2017). The Role of Vitamin K Status in Cardiovascular Health: Evidence from Observational and Clinical Studies. Current nutrition reports, 6(3), 197–205. doi:10.1007/s13668-017-0208-8.

[12] Cozzolino, M., Mangano, M., Galassi, A., Ciceri, P., Messa, P., & Nigwekar, S. (2019). Vitamin K in Chronic Kidney Disease. Nutrients, 11(1), 168. doi:10.3390/nu11010168

[13] Cozzolino, M., Mangano, M., Galassi, A., Ciceri, P., Messa, P., & Nigwekar, S. (2019). Vitamin K in Chronic Kidney Disease. Nutrients, 11(1), 168. doi:10.3390/nu11010168

[14] Cozzolino, M., Mangano, M., Galassi, A., Ciceri, P., Messa, P., & Nigwekar, S. (2019). Vitamin K in Chronic Kidney Disease. Nutrients, 11(1), 168. doi:10.3390/nu11010168

[16] Van Ballegooijen, A. J., & Beulens, J. W. (2017). The Role of Vitamin K Status in Cardiovascular Health: Evidence from Observational and Clinical Studies. Current nutrition reports, 6(3), 197–205. doi:10.1007/s13668-017-0208-8

[17] Shahrook, S., Ota, E., Hanada, N., Sawada, K., & Mori, R. (2018). Vitamin K supplementation during pregnancy for improving outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Scientific reports, 8(1), 11459. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-29616-y

[18] Jinghe, X., Mizuta, T., & Ozaki, I. (2015). Vitamin K and hepatocellular carcinoma: The basic and clinic. World journal of clinical cases, 3(9), 757–764. doi:10.12998/wjcc.v3.i9.757

[19] Orlando, A., Linsalata, M., Tutino, V., D'Attoma, B., Notarnicola, M., & Russo, F. (2015). Vitamin K1 exerts antiproliferative effects and induces apoptosis in three differently graded human colon cancer cell lines. BioMed research international, 2015, 296721. doi:10.1155/2015/296721

[20] Pazyar, N., Houshmand, G., Yaghoobi, R., Hemmati, A. A., Zeineli, Z., & Ghorbanzadeh, B. (2019). Wound healing effects of topical Vitamin K: A randomized controlled trial. Indian journal of pharmacology, 51(2), 88–92. doi:10.4103/ijp.IJP_183_18

[21] Ito, A., Shirakawa, H., Takumi, N., Minegishi, Y., Ohashi, A., Howlader, Z.H., Ohsaki, Y., Sato, T., Goto, T. & Komai, M.(2011) Menaquinone-4 enhances testosterone production in rats and testis-derived tumor cells. Lipids in Health and Disease, 10:158. doi: 10.1186/1476-511X-10-158.